Central Land Council

Rose Report Two

Conservation

Introduction

There is a significant amount of land in the Central Land Council region which is managed for conservation purposes. There are four National Parks, ten Conservation Reserves, eight Nature Parks, three Conservation Areas and two Protected Areas. Apart from Uluru National Park, which is managed by the Australian Nature Conservation Agency (ANCA), all of these areas are managed by the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (CCNT). In the case of Uluru National Park the land is Aboriginal freehold land under the Aboriginal Land Rights (NT) Act 1976. Tnorala Conservation Reserve is owned by the Tnorala Aboriginal Corporation and leased to the CCNT. All of the other areas managed for conservation purposes are held by the Conservation Land Corporation, the land holding instrumentality of the CCNT.

Much of the Aboriginal land within the study region is seen by the broader society as having high conservation value. This has come about largely because this land was unsuitable to support resource depleting land uses. One of the most obvious conservation issues in central Australia is species loss. Since the arrival of Europeans native mammal species of arid central Australia have suffered greatly.

Ecologists suggest that the combination of the introduction of herbivores, predators and altered patterns of fire have combined to push many of the mammals species to extinction and to severely reduce the range of many other species. Aboriginal perceptions of species loss differ fundamentally from this view. Many of the species which have disappeared from the arid zone played an important part in Aboriginal life. They provided a significant proportion of the diet and the details of life cycles and behaviour were intimately known. In recent years Aboriginal knowledge of the ecology of arid Australia has increasingly been sought to complement European understanding of arid zone ecology and to help prepare management plans aimed at conservation of endangered species.

Aboriginal perceptions of conservation and park management are strongly determined by the struggle for land rights and the need to have their role as custodians of the land recognised. Aboriginal perceptions of the causes of species loss and other changes that which occurred on their land provide a background for their attitudes to the methods and motives of conservation managers.

Overview of Aboriginal perceptions

European notions of conservation management are not well understood by Aboriginal people. Unlike European land managers, who seek to understand and manage their environment, Aboriginal people base their management on practices which have evolved through interaction. Aboriginal people see themselves as being an integral part of the environment and its dynamics rather than seeking to manipulate the natural world from outside. Aboriginal people see the use of the land's resources as a good and necessary thing if the country is to be alive. The way that both humans and animals use resources and interact with each other is understood primarily through the framework of laws set down in the Dreaming. For many Aboriginal people the activities undertaken by conservation agencies make little sense. For example, rangers killing feral animals is confusing because rangers are seen as having a role to protect and to look after the animals. Aboriginal people tend to see feral animals as belonging to the country, even though they are recent arrivals.

Killing some animals to look after others involves value judgements which are not necessarily part of the Aboriginal world view. Conservation interests on Aboriginal land are often viewed by Aboriginal landowners with trepidation. Conservation management is seen as imposing rules and regulations over the activities that people can undertake on their lands and therefore as a form of control which interferes with people's right to manage their own land in the way that they see fit. For Aboriginal people "looking after country" is the practice which most closely relates to conservation management. Aboriginal people see themselves as responsible for taking care of their land and ensuring through song and ceremony that the land is looked after. The loss of many mammal species from central Australia has had a significant impact on Aboriginal people. All the mammal species which have disappeared were important, both as staple food items and through their role in Aboriginal ceremony and spiritual life. For those people who are old enough to have witnessed their disappearance it has been a profoundly saddening experience.

However, for the most part Aboriginal people continue to hold the view that these animals still exist somewhere, and they keenly accept suggestions that some of these animals might be brought back to the country. There was a wide range of opinion about why the animals had disappeared from the country. Most commonly people suggested that the reason they had gone was that the old people with the stories had passed away and the animals had gone too. The songs and stories that are used to keep the country healthy had declined with the passing of some of the older generation so the animals were no longer being replenished in the customary way through ceremony.

A similar explanation given is that the country was not being looked after during the time that people were living far away in settlements and missions. In their absence the country had grown wild. When they returned the native animals had gone to be replaced by feral animals like camels. The blame was not so much placed on the feral animals but rather that while Aboriginal landowners were away from their country the native animals had "missed them" and had gone away too. The country had become "sick" because it was not being looked after. The animals needed people to look after the country and to look after them. Some people spoke about other changes they had seen on the country and how these related to the loss of species. Pastoralism had brought cattle into the country and they ate the grass that once used to feed the other animals. However, the idea of competition for resources was not widely accepted because, as many people pointed out, it is natural for animals to eat and to compete for food so why should this disadvantage one species over another.

Aboriginal people did not generally accept the argument that introduced animals should be removed in favour of native species. This view is explored more fully in the following chapter. The notion of "managing" an ecosystem, for example, by selectively removing a species, proved a difficult concept to grasp. Ethics and value judgements which support playing favourites with some species over others do not fit easily into the Aboriginal world view. Some respondents also spoke of introduced animals, such as cattle, scaring away the native animals because of the noise and the mess they made. However, as previously suggested this was not generally an indication that the problems of the decline of those species should be rectified by removing the cattle. The cattle were here now and the situation was beyond the control of people. People at several communities ventured the view that whitefellas had taken the animals away. While not connecting the loss of species to any one cause such as the arrival of feral animals or changes in land management activities there is, for some, a perceived connection between the arrival of Europeans and extinctions.

The rapidity with which these changes have occurred compared to the relative stability of the previous period is also recognised.

Conservation management

Many of the features which define the conservation values of an area also make an area important to Aboriginal people. For example permanent water, resource richness, spectacular geological formations, and sites of cultural significance such as early settlements and sites of historical importance. Conflict over the use of conservation areas often arises because Aboriginal people value these areas in a different way to Europeans.

For Aboriginal people we are talking about traditional land, where their people have lived for millennia and where the link between humanity and the spiritual forces which created the world is ever present. For Europeans we are talking about land which has considerable scientific interest, land where special aesthetic beauty can be found, where the last pockets of once more widespread species continue to exist. Between these culturally distinct views of land there may be some common values and shared views about what things should be protected and what activities and uses should not be permitted. At the same time there may be diverging views about how to go about serving these ends, and who should have the main role in doing the work. Discussion about conservation varied depending on respondents experience with conservation bodies.

A concern which many people raised was that conservation management should be Aboriginal work. If the land was to be looked after it was Aboriginal people's job to do it. These must be appropriate Aboriginal people who know the Law to look after the land properly. Park management "should be jobs for people. All our mob went through the Law, they know where the Dreaming is." At Uluru National Park the relationship between the traditional land owners and Park management authorities is widely publicised as being positive and cooperative.

This is stated on the basis that the working relationship between the Aboriginal owners and the park managers is based upon the Aboriginal traditional owners having the majority on the Board of Management. They therefore have considerable power over decisions which are made there. This role for the traditional owners ensures that appropriate Aboriginal people are aware of issues as they arise in the management of the Park and that decisions can be made which reflect the imperatives of Aboriginal Law (Tjukurpa). In many places people were concerned that activities carried out in the name of conservation limited their rights to do what they considered necessary on their land.

While Aboriginal rights to negotiate about land management practices vary with land tenure and the demeanour of management authorities there is a widespread view that conservation management is an imposition. Aboriginal people feel their long standing and special relationship with their land is ignored by an alien management regime, often without any form of consultation. An example of the conflicts which Aboriginal people perceive comes from consultations at Watarrka National Park.

The following conversation highlights a number of issues of conflict over park management.

Do you have many feral animals around here?

"We have some camels that come through occasionally, and we used to have some rabbits but the rangers have been getting rid of them The rangers have been poisoning them and the dingoes too."

So have all the rabbits gone now?

"We were lucky to see four rabbits before, there weren't many of them. We used to go out and catch the rabbits before, it was a bit of a pastime you know. We would teach the younger lads how to hunt them and how to look after rifles and be safe."

So has that changed now?

"Well we used to eat the rabbits too so our diet is changed, and mostly the dogs used to get food from them but we have to get it from somewhere else now. We worried about the wild animals, they might take the baits. That goanna, he might eat some rabbit and then be killed too. The rangers talking about looking after the wild animals but they are killing them. We are too frightened to take dogs with us when we go to get firewood because the dog might pick up a poison bait or poison dead animal. The rabbits were only in the south west corner, only a little area. Now after the poisoning we are starting to see a few rabbits around here, around the sunset area. The ones that survived they are moving away from there.

How is this affecting the other animals?

"They [park authorities] only worry for those bilby. They didn't survive those bilby because they put them in the wrong area. [CCNT tried unsuccessfully to re-introduce Bilbies into the park] they put them in the wrong place, no Witchetty (Acacia kempeana). If they put them right here where they have got their houses they would have been alright. We wanted to have a killer herd for ourselves over this part, but they take the country away from us. That's all it is, only think for the bilby animals. They have got some other Bilbies over near the rangers quarters now, and I heard they have three mothers with twins in the pouch."

Is that in a better spot over there where they have them?

"Well maybe but they might be eaten by feral cats, and they are worried about the dingoes so they poison them, but what do they think the dingoes will eat if they take away all the rabbits from here? They have got to eat something and there aren't many kangaroos around here. Sometimes we have to go 100 km before we see one, and we have to come back with nothing. There's not a real lot, it would be good to get some maybe from New South Wales where they got too many now. The trouble for the kangaroo is that they are blocking off the water holes so they have nowhere to drink. They put a boundary fence around [the park] which stopped a lot coming in. We got no movement in this place now. That's the main issue around here we are pushed into a corner.'

Have you talked to the community from Mutitjulu about how it works down there [at Uluru National Park]?

"They got more freedom down there. They won't let us grade our roads here. They wont listen to us. No one will work with them now, they had five Aboriginal rangers with them before but they have all resigned. They get all the shit jobs. If there's anything they don't want to do themselves they make the Aboriginal rangers do it. My eldest son was a ranger grade three, but all those grade one and two would tell him what to do and push him round. He should have been boss for them. He was working for a long time. Now he won't do it anymore when they treat him like that. They turned around and wanted to put a sunset viewing area right in front of our tour, just to stick something in our way. We want to have a meeting about this."

How is the day to day management of the park going?

"There's just no control for us. They decided to block off all of the roads, even our main road to get out of the park. Roads that we have established long ago. We are pretty careful about making roads and we stick to the roads. We don't go making new roads all the time. We don't drive off the roads to go shooting at kangaroo's or anything like that. We don't do that or shoot kangaroos from close to the resort because we know that is what people come to see. You know we have the right to hunt anywhere in the park, in front of the rangers or the tourists, but we not doing anything like that. We leaving those animals for the tourists to see. We want the tourists to come here, we are building our future on that happening, but we want to be able to control where they go and what they see. But we can't do that if rangers are going to run tours or if they bring in other companies."

Extinction

Perceptions of extinction

While most Aboriginal people were concerned about the fate of native animals there were few who accepted the finality of the concept of extinction. For most people those animals may be missing from their country now but they must still exist somewhere. Many people expressed a sense of loss that the animals were no longer around but there was also a pervading sense of passive acceptance about what had happened. Rather than question why the animals had gone and then attempt to act to bring them back, Aboriginal people accept what they perceive as a change in circumstances which is beyond their control. While the most commonly held view of the cause for extinctions was people's inability to carry on ceremony and look after land there is no-one to blame for this.

For many respondents it was clear the situation, with respect to the numbers of extinct species, was not fully understood. Some people continued to say that species which had disappeared many years ago still existed somewhere on their country. Most of these respondents admitted that they had not seen them themselves because they had not been out into this country since they were children, walking the lands with their family. In Warlpiri country discussions about the demise of native animals focused upon a number of issues including the impact of feral animals, the passing of the old people who knew the Law for those animals and the "noise" associated with communities and pastoral station development. Most other groups of respondents were not sure why the animals had declined and they provided inconclusive responses.

An example of a conversation at Tanami Downs:

"Well that mala he's all gone now, can't find him now, might have gone back south somewhere. There's a lot of water now they can go away any time."

What about those other animals, from early days, walpajirri (bilby)?

"Big mob of those here now they been walking around after the rain"

What about those other ones, mala?

"Well they have been finished up, they have gone. We got a big mob of camel here now. They walk all around this country. Those other animals they have gone, we might be bring him back from somewhere else."

Where do you think they have gone, what happened to make them go away from this country?

"I don't know what happened, early days. They been sitting here for a long time, early days you know, only that walpajirri here now, we still get that one. Some Aboriginal people have been telling me that those animals finish up because the old people have passed away, they don't have the songs for those animals any more.

"Well that's right for here too because those old people who sing songs for any animals to come out they have all finished." As people suggest that animals have gone away down the Dreaming track they hold on to the idea that they exist somewhere at the end of the track. Their view is that the animals have followed Dreaming trails into the remote parts of the country where they still exist.

Some people suggested that the extinct species which were enquired about still lived on the country. They were reluctant to acknowledge their complete disappearance. "Well they are still around here now, somewhere we still got possums around here and kangaroo, rats, rock wallaby, snake, all kinds, they come from this country."

All those animals that were here in your grandfather's time are they still here now?

"Yeah, they still here, still the same ones." At Orrtipa Thurra community, concern about the animals gone from the country was low. When asked about what caused them to go away there was little response. "They might be gone to the sea water."

At Pulardi Bore, the response was "mala used to be here." The respondent said his father told him they went away "down Dreaming track." As a result of this understanding the animals which have gone have not gone forever, they still exist somewhere at the end of the Dreaming track. This view was echoed at Yuendumu. While it is beyond the scope of this research, it would be interesting to further explore the connection between Dreaming stories and tracks and the movements or dynamics of populations of native animals.

Dreaming stories, while providing an explanation of the origins of species, may also include information about the way animal populations move and change in response to factors such as climatic variation. The old people passed away The most common reason given for why animals had gone from the country was the fact that the old people who knew the Law had passed away. As a result the activities which are important for the health of the country had not been carried out, or were being done in a diminished capacity.

At Antarrengenye discussion about the animals which once lived in the area resulted in the response; "Those animals have gone away from this country, maybe to the sea, they gone because maybe it's too hot, too dry. Those animals finished up because those old people been finish up. All those old people who hold the ceremonies for the animals have gone now so the animals can't come back. That bilby, the mob at Neutral Junction they should have a ceremony for him, and that mob at the shop (Arlparra) they should have a ceremony for the possum, and the mob at Atite they for that emu. That mob from CCNT brought some of those animals back in and they said that they might breed them up but they haven't come back here yet, we don't think they will come back."

As time passes there are fewer people who remember many of the species which have disappeared. As a result some people recall these animals as though they were from a past era. At Atheley community the loss of species was looked on as a historic phenomenon. "They all died before I grew up, only the old people used to use them. We don't know why they have gone." Similarly, at Ankerrapw the respondents remembered some of them but said they weren't around now. "Those animals have gone because some old people been pass away." When asked why many of the native species had gone, senior Alyawarr men from Amperlatwaty and Atnwengerrpe responded "All the people who could sing their songs got shot, that's why they're gone". It is likely that the men are referring to the massacres and random killings which occurred in early pastoral days.

At Mulga Bore it was said that "old people making corroboree and they all come out from that one. Now they can't make that corroboree anymore, that's why they have finished up." Loss of knowledge of traditional management The passing away of the old people who hold ceremonial knowledge is closely linked to a reduction in traditional management practices. Respondents said that there was less traditional management happening because they had lost some of the knowledge.

At Atnwengerrpe the lack of ability to carry on traditional practices was seen as the main cause for the loss of species. "When people came back to sit down they might be forget that business for the animals. They (older people) didn't give it to us for that business. They passed away and never show that business. In the old days people made rain and sang for tucker animals and people, then they finished up and we had big droughts. That's when the animals started to finish up too. All those old people never teach the young ones, now that country is a little bit sick. Whitefellas want to keep those Aboriginal working for too long so they can't teach the young ones."

This last comment points out that passing on traditional knowledge about country can be disrupted as people take on jobs on cattle stations and elsewhere. When traditional management practices are not carried out, the country is seen as becoming "sick". Lack of burning practices leads to build up in vegetation which is commonly regarded as an indication the country is not being looked after properly. People moved away from their land A factor which had severely disrupted traditional management practices was the removal of people from their traditional lands. For some this was a voluntary move while for others there was little choice.

Many respondents said that during this period of absence the greatest changes took place on their country. When people were able to return to their lands through the achievement of land rights and the outstation movement the country had changed and many of the animals species had gone. Such was the experience for the Pintupi people. Among the respondents there was a wide range of responses about particular aspects of the decline of native species. As in other areas the story was repeated that when people were rounded up by the Native Welfare authorities to go to Papunya there were animals around, but that when people returned these animals had gone and camels had come on to the country.

The story of how the animals came to leave the country was recounted to me at Kintore community: "In olden times there was plenty of ninu (bilby), mala (rufous hare-wallaby), purtaya (burrowing bettong), wayuta (brushtail possum) but now only pussy-cat, goanna and little bit ninu left. All gone, gone back." Where have they gone to? "Might be Sydney, might be Brisbane" Why did they go? "Lots of camels been coming bringing people, we don't know what happened. People gone away from this county. And those animals think, where have that man gone, and they go away too. At the same time those camels coming in here, and when we come back from Papunya they were all over the country." Where are the animals now? "Sometimes those whitefellas bring them back out here to show us, but they dead ones they bring em, they got em in box and they all dead and dry. Those whitefellas got them now too I reckon, they took em away from our country." In the Alyawarr region the situation was as elsewhere. Old people had passed away without passing on their knowledge of the country and now the country had become "sick". Some people suggested that those who should have been carrying out the ceremonies for the country had been driven away by pastoralists.

Others had been killed in conflicts over access to water and country. At Akarnenhe Well community on the Atnetye Aboriginal Land Trust, respondents had been away from the country for an extended period while it was a European pastoral lease. On their return to the country they found many of the species they knew from the area had gone. The respondents were aware of other places that some of these species could be found. "There aren't any possums around here, they are all over at Ambalindum and Claraville Station, the Cavanagh's place. That kwarlpa (spectacled hare-wallaby) isn't around this country either, they are over to Yuendumu side."

The new animals

Some respondents said that during the period when people were away from the country some new animals came into the area. Referring to a number of different feral animals and some domestic species, people said that the native animals had been displaced in their absence. It was expected that competition between native and feral species might be raised as an explanation for the decline and disappearance of native animals but in general this was not the case. When questioned people generally said that feral animals do not interfere with native species. However, there was some incompatibility which people often described in terms of "scaring " animals away and too much "noise" caused by feral animals. In some communities the impact of feral animals is blamed directly for the loss of many native species.

For example, at Ipolera community, the loss of native animals is blamed on feral animals such as cats and foxes. The community members see the need to control these feral animals in the vicinity. There is also some desire to bring back some of the native animals. "I have been talking to some of those tourist fellas and they say that they have a couple of those quolls you know and they reckon that they are going to catch them and send them up for me. None of those animals are around here any more. I think we have feral animals and cats and foxes. One night I shot a huge feral cat coming round to the cat we had here. Well we destroyed that one too in case it went out to the bush too." Whitefellas took them away

A response given by a number of disparate groups was that native animals had been taken away by whitefellas. The reasoning behind this suggestion was that on a number of occasions whitefellas had returned to the community with specimens of these animals asking about their behaviour and occurrence. Community members presumed that because these people had specimens with them they must also have populations of live animals somewhere. Some people were confused about the motives of these researchers because their activities did not seem to make sense. For example, why would they bring back these dead animals when it seems obvious that they took them away in the first place? It would seem they must know where they are now.

Also the discussion about the possibilities of reintroducing these species had raised expectations. In the intervening period there have been no successful reintroductions so people were beginning to question what these people were really doing when they came out to their country. For example both at Mt Dennison and Kintore respondents claimed the animals had "been taken away by the whitefellas. Been gone a long time, those whitefellas took them away." Discussion about the problems of feral animals such as cats, and how they might have impacted on the native animals was clearly on the wrong track. "Those pussy cat, they eat the birds rather than the other animals. We see those other animals when those CCNT mob bring them out here. Those pussy cat, they're okay."

Dry time

Another explanation which was often given for the loss of animal species was a "dry time". In Chapter four there is a discussion about the perceived importance of rain in maintaining the condition of the country. The influence of good and bad seasons is also seen as important for animal species and was suggested as a contributing factor in their decline. Other reasons At Alatyeye there was a pragmatic response to questions about the demise of native animals. A number of factors were seen to be operating in concert. The respondent was the only one who expressed the opinion that hunting with guns might have been a problem. "Those animals have gone from this country for a number of reasons, the main one being cattle. Cattle have taken over their country. Also there used to be more rainfall in those days. Another big reason is that people now have tools and guns to hunt them with. In the old days we would hide behind the grass and sneak up on animals and let fly with a spear, most times we would miss but sometimes we would get them. Now if anything comes within eyesight of a car it's gone. Now you've got guns." There were several different responses given to explain why some native species had gone from the area. Some people suggested that because of the size of the community there were "too many people, too noisy." Others suggested that the "bushfires drive them away."

Because of the increased population the number of fires had increased and this had led to the demise of the animals in the region. At Papunya people in the community did not see that there was any conflict between native and feral animals. "They [feral animals] fit in all right, still lots of yinalingi (echidna) around here. The wayuta and the walpajirri moved away because they always move around the country and go out to breed up."

At New Bore outstation near Papunya the relationship between feral animals and native animals was again seen to be a non-issue. "Goanna is okay, not affected by other animals." The reasons that native animals had declined were subsequently given as: "Animals (native) finish, might be sometime no water, might be dry country those animals go away." "Might be old people come in from the bush, might be long time and all that animal might be move because no people around here." "Fire might be problem, burning all the country and frighten the animal." This reference related to hot wildfires which are seen as bad and which occur after the country has not been "looked after" with regular winter-time burning. At Nyirrpi species decline was blamed on several factors. "Might be too hot, might be no rain, too much bushfire, when burning stop then too big fires finish them up." Others suggested "that rabbit been come through really big mobs and some people eat em then." In a number of interviews feral animals were blamed for "scaring away" the native animals.

In this context the terms "noise" and "scaring away" were understood as relating some measure of disturbance of the natural environment. At Yuendumu respondents were often unsure about why animals had disappeared and when prompted for a reason offered several different stories as explanations of what might have happened. The most common response was that the "noise" of disturbances around communities and the country had driven the animals away. People remember rabbits coming into the country and talked of the influence of settlement and white cattle stations. "White man came in to get cattle station and animals move out, because of noise and lots of people, look for peaceful place." Several respondents spoke about changes to burning practices. "Some animals finish up because no bushfire burning for green grass."

Implications for management

Controlling feral animals

The distinction between native animals and feral animals is difficult for Aboriginal people to accept. Most people said that so called feral animals belong to the country now that they have been introduced and have grown up and reproduced there. Despite this, people were still well aware of which animals had come to the lands with Europeans. "Those animals that came from whitefella side, that horse, camel, donkey, all that from other country, that's what all the old people been all the time saying." The fact that these animals have come more recently to the lands does not necessarily mean that they should be managed differently from other species. It is generally held that they all have a right to live on the country now. Some species of introduced animals were seen differently by respondents.

It was common for people to suggest that "pussy cat been from early days in this country, he breed up in this country." At the same time others said that the cat was a relative newcomer to the lands but it had been here before Europeans and arrived independently of them. It is possible that the spread of feral cats could have preceded the arrival of white settlers for some Aboriginal groups in central Australia. The suggestion that introduced animals may have impacted on native animals was commonly dismissed. Typically respondents replied that native animals "never worry about anything, cattle, people."

However, these responses were often contradicted later in discussion if people were pushed to provide explanations as to why native animals had declined. The result of these commonly held perceptions is that people are generally not supportive of proposals to get rid of feral animals. They do not see a direct connection between such an action and the return of native species to the country. Traditional management practices Traditional management practices are seen as the most important activity to increase the numbers of native animals. This has a number of practical implications for implementation. Old people need to visit the country to carry out ceremonies and to burn the bush. Young people need to be taught how to look after the country properly in this way and to learn the proper ceremonies for the animals. Ranger business Some respondents spoke about looking after animals as being "ranger business".

Some of the perceptions of the roles of rangers is discussed in chapter eight in relation to controlling feral animals. At a number of communities ranger training programs were seen as a good way to help the native animals. From these discussions it was indicated that the role of a ranger is seen as using some of the skills and activities of traditional Aboriginal management tied together with the resources that rangers have to carry out their work. At Atitjere community there was little response to discussions about the loss of native animals. Instead the respondents spoke about the animals that do occur in the region and their hunting practices. "We hunt lots of rabbits and kangaroo around here, there's plenty." In relation to animals the respondents also suggested that "a ranger program would be good in the community. Give young fellas some good work to do." The reasons that a ranger program would be implemented were very vague. "They could do what rangers do, you know, look after the animals."

Summary

European notions of conservation are not well understood by Aboriginal people. This stems from the way Aboriginal people relate to the natural world through their framework of understanding as set down in the Dreaming. The non-Aboriginal concept of conservation management involves active intervention in the natural world to attempt to control the processes and events occurring there. It relies on the premise that the relationships and interactions occurring in the natural world can be understood and thus managed. Aboriginal "management" of the environment is understood through song and ceremony. It is seen to be more of integrated process whereby knowledge of the natural world is gathered through personal experience and passed on through tradition and culture.

Aboriginal management links people to their environment rather than giving them dominion over it. Aboriginal relationships to land are defined in terms of culture and site protection, land usage and harvesting of natural resources. To be accepted and understood by Aboriginal people conservation practices need to be consistent with those things. It follows then that an essential component of considering Aboriginal involvement in conservation management on Aboriginal land is a recognition of the important Aboriginal values in relation to owning, controlling and managing land.

Because of these differences in perception the motives of conservation management agencies are often obscure to Aboriginal people. An example is the confusion caused by feral animal control programs. It is not clear why conservation managers should select some animals (native species) for protection and not others (introduced species). Aboriginal people believe that all animals have a right to be on country. Rangers should take care of all of them, they say. The worth of an animal lies in its ability to live and flourish in the environment, not in its claim to being an original component of the fauna. There are many explanations from Aboriginal people as to why native species have declined. The main reason given is that the old people who held the Law for those animals have passed away. People have been alienated from their traditional lands and have not been able to take care of them through traditional practices as set down in Aboriginal Law.

The strong ties between people and the land have been changed by the coming of Europeans and the balance between people and the environment has changed. For many Aboriginal people the extinction of the animals which form such a substantial part of their culture is not fully accepted. They believe that they must exist somewhere, perhaps in remote parts of the country, or in the cities where white people live. Some people percieve that the native animals have been taken away by whitefellas who sometimes bring them back as dead specimens. Aboriginal people seem to have passively accepted that these species have gone and have adapted their activities to fit in with the changes in their environment.

Aboriginal people are generally supportive of proposals to reintroduce endangered species to their country, but they also have a not unreasonable scepticism about the likelihood of these programs succeeding. In their opinion the animals might be brought back but whether they will be able to survive without the proper Aboriginal Law to look after them is uncertain. Researchers have used the re-introduction argument to recruit Aboriginal support for their work but the outcomes hoped for have not been forthcoming. As a result some Aboriginal people question the motivation for such programs. Recommendations It is recommended that: Conservation agencies acknowledge the importance to Aboriginal people of gaining secure title to land or entering into joint management arrangements over land where there is a conservation management interest.

The Central Land Council continue to support traditional owners in carrying out their traditional land management activities through; seeking to have government land management instruments recognise and support traditional management practices. responding to Aboriginal requests for information and assistance with management activities. providing assistance for the practical implementation of management activities where applicable. The land councils and representative Aboriginal organisations examine the issue of Aboriginal intellectual property and environmental knowledge rights to: develop provisions to protect Aboriginal rights of ownership of this knowledge. increase Aboriginal control over the directions and outcomes of environmental research using Aboriginal knowledge. facilitate the involvement of Aboriginal people in conservation research of benefit to Aboriginal people. Recommendations (continued)