Central Land Council

Rose Report Two

Feral Animals

Introduction

The definition of feral is wild, untamed and uncultivated. The term feral animal is commonly used to refer to animal species which have been introduced to Australia from elsewhere and which have successfully survived and bred outside of captivity. Previous research into Aboriginal attitudes to feral animals in the Western MacDonnell Ranges and the south eastern Tanami Desert regions has shown that they differ from those of non-Aboriginal people (Nugent, 1988). The information presented in this report supports these findings and demonstrates that similar perceptions of feral animals are held by all of the Aboriginal groups in the study region.

Overview of Aboriginal perceptions of feral animals

Aboriginal people recognise that most feral animals are newcomers to the lands, however, their presence has been generally accepted. Some introduced animals have in fact taken on an important role in Aboriginal life. Over several generations Aboriginal people have worked with horses, camels and donkeys and these animals are now seen to have the right, through long association, to live on the country. Some introduced species have replaced extinct native species as important components of the Aboriginal diet. Rabbits are an important component of the diet in many areas. The feral cat is also consumed in many areas with some claiming its consumption has medicinal qualities.

The use of the land's resources by all animals is seen as a natural process. Animals have to eat, and are in turn eaten by other animals or by humans. This ongoing process is an important part of living on the country and it reaffirms the life sustaining qualities of the land. From this perspective, Aboriginal people do not usually select out some animals and isolate their effects on country above those of other animals.

It also follows that Aboriginal people do not see it as their role to interfere with the dynamics of animal populations except through the properly sanctioned use of animals and through the influence of Aboriginal Law. Some introduced species are seen as having religious significance because they feature in Bible stories. These stories taught to Aboriginal people at missions and religious schools have given the donkey and the camel special status in some areas. The religious stories, however, are not uniformly accepted and many young respondents do not share the stricter views of their parents regarding the sacred nature of these animals. Many respondents said that the feral cat is not an animal that was introduced by Europeans to the centre but rather it arrived before Europeans.

A number of respondents also related that the feral cat has a Dreaming and it is therefore part of the natural environment of the arid zone. Feral animals are not seen as being owned by people, they belong to the land on which they live. From this perspective feral animals are seen to have a right to be on the country. Aboriginal people generally accept that feral animals can be used to provide income and employment; however, people are generally against killing feral animals on their country, particularly if they are wasted. The reasons for feral animal control programs are very unclear for many people. Most of the people spoken to do not feel that feral animals damage country or interfere with native animals. By far the majority of those spoken to do not see any reason to distinguish between feral animals and native animals in terms of the effect they have on the country. Programs to control feral animal populations do not generally reflect Aboriginal priorities. Many respondents suggested that if the government wants to control these animals they should pay for it and compensate Aboriginal people for the loss of resources that they would suffer.

Attitudes to feral animals

The term "feral" is itself not widely used by Aboriginal people. In the interviews the subject of feral animals was usually raised with the open question, "do you have any feral animals around here?" Most commonly this question was met with the response "which animals?", prompting further explanation of which species were being referred to. With this point clear it was often the case that the informants would then go on to provide a fairly detailed account of where the species could be found in the vicinity, what their habits were, for example "they come around here in the dry times", and some indication of how they were viewed, for example "they cheeky ones those camels" (indicating mischievous or troublesome habits). As Aboriginal people do not generally refer to the animals which are more recent additions to the Australian fauna as "feral" this raises the question of how the concept of a feral animal is seen. When discussing the individual species of feral animals the larger species, horses, camels, and donkey are often referred to as "wild ones", for example "wild horse or brumby horse". These terms are used to indicate the observation that they are not used to human handling.

However, the fact that these animals were living on the country indicates to Aboriginal people that they "belong to the country" because they have successfully survived and bred there. So although the larger feral animals are recognised as distinct from domesticated stock they are not seen as being alien to the environment. This observation has been made by previous work on feral animals carried out by the Central Land Council with Arrernte people: Many of the people spoken to thought of feral animals as being "-arenye" (belonging to the country) as opposed to "ulerenye" – a stranger to the country. While it was recognised that these animals had once been "ulerenye" on the whole they now had the status of "-arenye". Similarly, the smaller species of feral animals such as rabbits and foxes were seen as belonging to the country. This is particularly the case with rabbits because of the important role they have come to play in the Aboriginal diet since the demise of some native species.

While feral animals were seen as belonging to the country, it was generally recognised that they had come "from the whitefella side" in a number of different ways. Respondents told of how cattle and horses had been brought onto the country by the pastoralists and missionaries at Haasts Bluff and Santa Teresa. The origin of camels was seen as closely linked with Afghan cameleers and the early transport of European people and goods around the centre. Aboriginal people also recounted how they had been involved with these animal projects to varying degrees and how many people had attained considerable skill in animal handling. In a number of cases this experience has led to the desire to set up projects based around the domestication and use of these species.

The origins of feral cats is seen quite differently to that of other feral species. Aboriginal people consistently maintain that cats have been in central Australia for a long time and many people say that they came from the west. This information has led to speculation that cats colonised the centre as result of 17th century shipwrecks on Australia's west coast. The feral cat has taken on an important role in the diet in many areas and its consumption is seen by many to have medicinal qualities. A number of respondents related that the feral cat has a Dreaming and that its origins had nothing to do with European colonisation of Australia. Discussion of feral animals in relation to native animals often showed a distinction between introduced animals which had no Dreaming (with some notable exceptions eg. as above), and native animals which had a Dreaming.

"Camel and donkey and horse – no Dreaming, new ones – they travelled from somewhere." However, this distinction was generally not seen as significant by respondents who were clear that "those feral animals fit in okay with those Dreaming animals." On several occasions I followed this point further by stating that the animals without a Dreaming might not know how to relate to the others and may eat all their food or harm them in some other way. Such a conclusion was clearly not seen as logical and the interaction of Dreaming and non-Dreaming animals was not seen as a problem.

By way of clarification several respondents said there could be no conflict between Dreaming and non-Dreaming animals because "God made all the animals so they fit in together okay." In many interviews questions about the origins of animals led directly to religious explanations. The origins of these interpretations are the stories and morality which have been taught to many Aboriginal people on missions and in religious schools. The outcome of these teachings in relation to feral animals is that humans should not interfere with what God has created.

Because of the Christian creation story it is seen that all animals are equal and that humans have no right to play favourites. One example of how a religious point of view has affected attitudes came from a visit to a Witjira National Park in northern South Australia with a number of traditional owners for the area. Rangers had recently shot several camels as part of their camel control program and they offered some fresh meat from these animals to our party. Most of the people present refused the offer and later in the camp their reasons were made clear. One woman said "what is he killing those animals for, he's a ranger and he should be looking after those animals."

Later, a different woman went on to say that there was a camel Dreaming which involved "three camels who travelled to be with that Jesus." Similar reactions to feral animal control programs were recorded in a number of areas; however, it was common for younger men to say that "some old people think about that God way" with the implication that they did not share these views. Ownership of feral animals The most common response to questions about ownership was that no-one owns feral animals, they belong to the land on which they live. It follows therefore that they belong to the traditional owners of the country they are on. This connection may, in some cases, be related to animal domestication projects involving traditional owners which have since run down leaving mainly feral stock on the country. In other cases the feral animals have come from adjacent pastoral operations, or in the case of camels, from desert dwelling populations.

Effects of feral animals on country

There is a degree of heterogeneity in Aboriginal people's understanding and perception of the impacts of feral animals on their country. Some people share the mainstream European view that feral animals should be controlled to minimise their effects. But by far the majority of those spoken to see no reason to distinguish between feral animals and native animals in terms of the effect they have on the country. Responses to questions about the effects of feral animals on country were often met with a degree of misunderstanding. Upon clarification that I was interested in changes observed to be caused by these animals there were a range of responses. Most commonly people were dismissive of any effects stating that the country was in good condition and that these animals did not affect the land.

On further questioning, such as, "do these animals make any dust or damage water holes or fences?" the response was often affirmative. Once I had given examples of the types of effects I considered damaging to country there were generally a number of examples of similar effects recounted to me. Returning then to broader questions such as "do the feral animals cause damage to the country?" respondents would agree but the importance of these changes and effects remained low compared to factors such as rain. These issues are discussed more fully in chapter four. With further discussion about the effects of feral camels on desert soaks and sacred sites in more remote areas people usually expressed concern that the country was not being looked after when these animals were allowed into these areas. "Bullock, horse, camel go into sacred areas where there was no hunting before. Old people who are buried in this country, those bullock get in there, no respect for country." In some areas the issue of feral animals is a priority for community members.

For example in an interview at Papunya the need to protect particular sites from feral animal activity was seen as a priority. At the same time, however, feral animals were seen as "belonging to the country" because they had "settled down and bred up here" but their numbers were seen as being too high, "too many animals now they're breeding up." In a number of interviews feral animals were blamed for "scaring away" the native animals. "Horses and camels frighten (native) animals away." They were said to "make too much noise and mess" on the country, so the native animals had gone away. Responses such as this were usually given during discussions about the demise of native species (chapter seven has more detailed information) rather than in discussions about the effects of feral animals.

Uses of feral animals

Feral species have been used by Aboriginal people ever since these animals arrived in central Australia. As previously mentioned rabbits have become an important part of the diet in some areas, usually wherever they are found in abundance. Beef was introduced to Aboriginal people soon after pastoralists moved into the centre, and those with experience in horse handling have often made use of wild horses for stock work and transport. In recent years some projects for the use of feral animals have been funded externally where this was seen to provide income and employment and contribute towards reducing numbers. The development of these projects is usually initiated through accessing funds such as those available from the Bureau of Resource Sciences (BRS).

Aboriginal attitudes to the use or harvesting of feral animals seems to be relatively uniform. Most of those spoken to were happy that feral animals could be used to provide economic and employment benefits for the community. In general, however, people are against killing feral animals simply as an environmental control measure. Any program which involved the slaughter of animals should be carried out in such a way that animals were not wasted, and preferably animals killed in an abattoir rather than on the land. In many areas where feral horses, donkeys and camels are present people expressed a desire to set up some form of feral animal utilisation project.

Knowledge of the sorts of projects that can be set up has been spread by word of mouth and promoted by a range of organisations involved in land management. For some species, particularly camels, markets for meat are such that small scale ventures can be profitably developed without significant outside input. This is particularly the case where communities have access to yards and horses or motorbikes for mustering the wild stock. However, most communities I visited are only prepared to start such ventures if they can get some initial money from the government to set it up. People are generally reluctant to initiate programs on the basis of advice that it would be financially viable. "Better to get money from the government to take camels away rather than get money at the abattoir." The knowledge that some groups have received financial support to set up harvesting programs reduces the likelihood that others will set up programs without support. It is also stated that the desire to use these animals and to control them comes largely from "the Government." If they want it to happen they should put money into it.

These issues will have a great effect on animal utilisation and control programs and they are discussed more fully in section 8.3.4 Attitudes toward the consumption of feral animal meat were also canvassed in the research. The favoured meat for consumption is beef. Association with pastoral stations and the supply of cattle meat through stores has made cattle meat well known and accepted. Attitudes to the consumption of other meats varied more widely. Several communities have recently killed camels to provide the meat to community members. This utilisation has been encouraged by the Land Council and the BRS as a possible form of control together with the practical utilisation of the feral stock.

In the communities where this meat was consumed most community members were enthusiastic about its quality. In contrast people in neighbouring communities were often unsure about the consumption of camel meat. Some people expressed the opinion that "camel meat is no good for you, it will make you sick." Horse and donkey meat was widely regarded as not being fit for consumption. Some individuals mentioned that they had eaten horse meat under special circumstances in the past and that it was acceptable, but was not consumed as a matter of course. The rationale which was given for this attitude is that horse meat was not eaten by white people, so is regarded as inferior meat. A number of respondents also mentioned that horses had "worked hard for us in the early days" and they had therefore attained some status which required them being respected. They had, in effect, earned their retirement and should be left to live on the country. This attitude came up repeatedly in talking about what, if anything, people should do with feral animals. Feral horses in particular are seen to have earned their position on the country and they should be left alone. As previously discussed both cats and rabbits are hunted in many areas.

Rabbit harvesting projects which provided fresh meat to community stores have also been established at several communities with financial support from the BRS. The demand for the meat exceeded supply and the programs were seen to have a number of benefits. Unfortunately these projects are no longer operating because those involved have lost interest in carrying out the work. Young men involved with one project based at Mutitjulu and Imanpa communities gradually lost interest over a period of time until the project was forced to be terminated. The work was seen as being difficult with long hours at night and extended periods away from the community with little financial return. Projects utilising feral animals have been set up in a number of communities with varying degrees of success. The stated aspirations of those involved in these projects vary but they usually involve: obtaining some resources to set up the project, such as possible access to 4WD vehicles, trucks or motor bikes, and on the ground equipment such as portable fences and yards.

The suggestion that these projects could be set up using horses for mustering rather than vehicles is often seen as much less attractive. employment for young men in the community. This aspiration is usually stated by the older community members as "giving the young fellas something to do." Many younger people for whom such projects would provide employment are less enthusiastic about the prospects. This may in part explain why many projects have been of limited duration. possible economic return from the sale of animals. making use of the resources available on the country. The animals have grown up on the country and their use is a way of demonstrating and reaffirming traditional ties with country. Feral animal control Most people spoken to during the research were to some extent aware of feral animal control programs either through the involvement of their own community or of adjacent communities. The most common response when talking about these projects was the question "what do they want to get rid of those animals for?" For many people the rationale for wanting to eradicate feral animals is very unclear. For some it indicates that those proposing eradication have a strange and unnecessarily wasteful attitude towards those animals. For others it is simply beyond comprehension.

It cannot be conceived why a "natural" system should be interfered with in this manner. People were often surprised that CCNT would want to shoot some animals when they are supposed to be looking after them. The idea of shooting animals to simply reduce their numbers was never supported, even by those who felt that feral animals needed to be controlled or even eradicated to protect the country. In discussions about control of feral animals eradication was rarely seen as a good objective. "If government wants to get rid of them they can pay for it because we don't want to." Some respondents even suggested that control programs should endeavour to leave a few animals on the country so that they "can grow up again". If feral animal control programs are to be successfully developed on Aboriginal land by Aboriginal people the desire to control the animals must come from the community rather than from an outside body.

At present Aboriginal people see the Government and other organisations as wanting to get rid of the animals and therefore being responsible for paying for this work. Some regional perceptions Alyawarr Attitudes to native and introduced animals vary throughout the Alyawarr region. On many points, however, there is a clear consensus view. Feral animals are firmly established as part of the faunal complement in the region. Smaller feral species such as rabbits and cats are widely used for food, while larger species are established in the region and are now seen to belong on that country. For most respondents the rationale behind feral animal control programs is difficult to understand. Feral animals are not viewed as somehow less worthy of being on the country than native species. The use of most species in economic ventures, for example harvesting feral camels or horses, is condoned. Any form of control which wastes animals is strongly opposed.

There are different opinions about the use of some species such as cats. For many people they have become an important part of the diet and are seen to be good tucker. At Antarrengeny for example people said "pussy cats, they're good meat, we catch them and eat them." At Atitjere people recounted that "my country has a Pussy Cat Dreaming. We don't eat them now, we just keep them for pets. Those old people used to eat them." At Mulga Bore respondents also mentioned the cat Dreaming saying that they are no longer taken for food because they now keep cats as pets and don't want to eat their pets. "Pussy cat, they have Dreaming story that comes from Apwetyelaneme country near Huckitta Station. We used to eat a lot of that pussy cat but we can't now because we have too many around the camp. We don't know if we killing someone's pet." At Orrtipa Thurra community, on an excision from Jervois Station, cats are kept as pets. At one house there were over 20 cats which were said to be good at keeping away snakes from the community. The community also has goats and pigs which are kept as pets; "We don't eat them, just keep them for pets."

There was also some discussion about the rabbits that occur around the community and the fact that they catch a lot of them for food. The control of rabbits is an important issue for Aboriginal people because in many areas rabbits form a substantial part of the diet, especially since the decline and extinction of many native species of similar size. For most people rabbits have become part of the fauna and are not seen as a problem. At Irrerlirre I talked about the proposal by land managers to control the rabbit and if possible to get rid of all rabbits because of the damage they do to the country. Aboriginal people could not understand why land managers would want to do this. "They want to get rid of the rabbit because it eats the grass. What would people eat if they took the rabbit away. It's a good food. Why do they want to get rid of it?"

An explanation of the perceived problems caused by rabbits, where they came from and the damage they have caused led to the response "they want to get rid of it because it's not from Australia. That's a stupid idea. Australian people eat them. Does that mean they should get rid of the bullock too. They have got bigger mouths than rabbits, they can eat more food. You should get rid of them too. If they kill all the bullock where would people get all their meat?" These last statements were made to the hilarity of those assembled. The idea was preposterous. To control an animal because it is eating grass, doing what it should do, did not make sense. This discussion did get people talking about the damage cattle do by eating bush tucker, fouling springs and so on. But the connection between this "problem" and any desire toward reducing its impact was not clear. There was also the fact that many people live on excisions from pastoral leases. They would not have the power to act even if they thought it was a good idea.

I suggested that the aim of controlling rabbits and other feral animals might be to allow more kangaroos and other native animals such as the mala to breed up and come back to the country. "No those animal good kura [meat]. Those mala they've all gone to Tanami side. Those old people have gone now that look after them." Anmatyerre Following some discussion of "bush tucker" animals at Mt Allan, respondents said that there had been "lots of native [tucker] animals around before cattle." However, the reason they went away was not because of the cattle but "because God made them move – no one can make them move." People were aware of the arrival of other animals over recent history such as the rabbits "from white fella side – used to be a lot", but these changes were not linked to the demise of native species. Similarly other introduced species such as camels, donkeys and horses were recognised as coming from elsewhere.

They were, however, seen to belong to the country now that they had grown up here. They were recognised as not having a Dreaming under Aboriginal Law but they were seen to have a valid right to be here as explained in the Bible. "All these animals don't have a Dreaming because they came from God in that Bible book." Some responses to feral animals were initially taken as indicating they were seen as aliens in the natural environment. However, with the assistance of interpreters the answers were shown to be indicating something much more simple. For example respondents at Pulardi Bore said "all the feral animals don't belong to this country." The meaning behind this statement was not that feral animals have come from elsewhere and don't belong, but that they are not present on this country.

The statement "don't belong to this country" is indicating that, for whatever reason, feral animals don't presently occur there. Arrernte Donkeys and camels occur in the vicinity of Areyonga and there have been programs in the past to control their numbers. The people interviewed were not in favour of killing donkeys. "If the government wants to get rid of them they should pay for it because we don't want to get rid of them. If they are going to kill them we want them to be taken away and killed somewhere else, we don't want them killed here in the bush." In general the feral animal control programs were known about but their rationale remained a mystery to Aboriginal people as with other communities. In the Areyonga region feral animals were not seen as being detrimental to the country. In fact many people said that they appreciated the presence of these animals. When asked about who owns these animals people said "nobody owns them. They were born on this country and they belong to this ground."

Those who had been involved with control programs in the past were concerned that the responsibility for the control might be placed on them. If this happened they should receive money from the government. "Better to get money from government to take camels away rather than get the money at the abattoir." Use of feral animals to provide employment for the community was seen by the men as a good thing. Some respondents suggested that they should start up the feral animal harvesting programs again because the young people have nothing to do. When asked about the relationship between feral animals and native animals there was little response. It was envisaged that there may be some connection between Aboriginal people and those animals which have Dreaming stories which might be absent for feral animals which are said to have no Dreaming. One of the clear problems with this supposition is that not all feral animals are without a Dreaming, and it is not clear that all species of native animals have a Dreaming. This is especially true for smaller mammal, reptile and invertebrate species which are often grouped together in Aboriginal classifications.

Responses such as "rabbits come from white man, none of these (feral) animals have a Dreaming", led to speculation that feral animals may be seen differently from native animals. However, respondents repeatedly said that animals which came from elsewhere had as much right to be on the country now as the native animals and that there was no conflict between the way they used the country together. After talking about animals for a while people said there is a need for "rangers to come and work around here to look after the animals. There are rangers in other places (Uluru and Watarrka) but none around here. The women present expressed the opinion that "ranger work could be done by the young fellas, they need to have something to do." At Atula homestead there was a clash of opinions about feral animals between the Aboriginal station manager and the people living in the Aboriginal community.

The station manager was concerned that "we have a lot of trouble with camels around here coming in from the south and breaking down all the fences. When we proposed to shoot them there was a big hullabaloo from the community saying that they shouldn't be shot. If they don't want to shoot them I hope they are prepared to come here to fix up the damage." The manager went on to say that "since the Aboriginal community came back after the purchase of the property in 1989 the wildlife has really taken a beating. They are always catching porcupines and kangaroos. Why are they so worried about the camels when they are decimating the native animals, it doesn't make sense."

The Aboriginal people in the community on the station had no concerns over the native wildlife, and felt that the feral camels were not a problem. Respondents went on to discuss where the different native species could be found in the region and where the camels were coming on to the station from the adjacent desert country. At a number of other communities respondents wanted to get rid of some feral animals because they could see them interfering with their cattle projects. At Haasts Bluff there are several small cattle projects run by Aboriginal people over the land trust area. The respondents were quite concerned that the feral animals on the country were having a detrimental effect on their cattle projects through competition for resources. "Big mob brumby around here, and camel." The men were keen to set up some sort of program to get feral horses and camels off the country. The reasons given for the desire to remove them were "brumby's around make too much noise and messing up the country." The feral horses were also seen as a source of revenue to complement the cattle project, and not to be wasted through culling programs. Removing them from the country was seen as a way to reduce pressure on the country to enable it to carry more cattle. The connection to native animals was also made.

"Main thing you got to clean those horses and camels off this land then some of those animals [native] can come back." One of the problems identified by the respondents is that they cannot get any assistance to do anything about the feral animal problem. "Whitefellas coming out and talking all the time, sometimes telling bullshit and nothing happens. More talk and no action and problems getting worse. Might be you'll come out to see us next year and it will be brumby horses that come out of the houses to see you instead of me." At Wallace Rockhole community there is a small cattle business. People said that they want to control donkeys in the region if they can market them, rather than see them go to waste. At Ipolera there are large numbers of feral donkeys which are seen as a problem because of the effect they have on the country. Control of these animals is seen as a good idea but shooting animals is not supported. The respondents were disillusioned with attempts to access resources to carry out control programs.

"We've got a big mob of donkeys out here, right along here up to Areyonga. I think that's why we have got to get rid of all those donkeys." Have they been causing problems around here? "Not around here but especially out. They eat all the grasses and stuff like that."

Have you ever tried to get some of those donkeys? Take them to the abattoir or have them shot?

"No, well no good to shoot them out here. Got to take them away somewhere and shoot them. I was surprised a couple of months ago you know someone shot might be thirty or forty donkeys out there near Tylers Pass."

Who was that, Aboriginal people or a pastoralist?

"I don't know might be someone else. Cause whatever they want to do they always ask Conservation. This mob they just shoot them, didn't take them away. I don't think Aboriginal."

Have you thought about some program to get rid of them? "We tried but we didn't get any money."

At Kulpitarra community there is a desire to set up feral animal harvesting programs but there is frustration at the red tape involved in approaching organisations for funding. The community has been involved in mustering feral horses and is keen to set up a camel harvesting program but lacks information about the economics of such a venture. There are many stories around about large prices for camels from overseas markets and the respondents said they wanted to access these markets rather than sell to the abattoir.

"Who can help us muster camels; we have been talking about this all the time, some other bloke came around talking to us. We been talking but nothing happened. I got a bloke already working for me mustering brumby horses for me to sell. We still got a big mob of horses at Tent Hill over here. We bin get some with a helicopter." At Mt Solitaire outstation on Hamilton Downs pastoral lease feral animals are seen as "new ones" to the country. They are seen as coming in from somewhere else, but now they belong to the country and they fit in with the native animals. There is no conflict between native animals and introduced animals because they were all made by God.

"Camel okay and Donkey, God made kangaroos and bush turkey, same way with those donkey and camel, same way. Camel and donkey and horse – no Dreaming, new ones – they travelled from somewhere."

"These animals don't have any Dreaming. These animals they eat all the food. The other animals don't go away because there are lots of cattle around here and there are still lots of kangaroo and wallaby in the range country." Use of feral animals is seen as a good thing but people are against shooting horses. Some people said that in the old days people used to eat horses, camels and donkeys but that they don't eat them any more.

"Shooting horses – not good. They want to shoot em because they breaking things, making trouble, those wild ones. Horses and donkeys and camels not good to eat. In olden times they always eat em! Shooting horses is no good sometimes they shoot horses out from before Aboriginal people can muster them. Okay if they are taken off to the abattoir''.

Pintupi/Luritja

At Apatula (Finke) community, feral horses, rabbits and camels were seen as "bad for country." Control programs that used the feral animals were condoned, but culling animals through shooting programs was seen as wrong. Rabbits were being harvested by community members and people said that there were "lots of wild rabbits, good that rabbit program can use them." When rangers from the nearby Witjira National Park killed several camels people said "what is he killing those animals for, he's a ranger and should be looking after those animals."

An older respondent said that camels should not be shot. She also believed it was not right to eat camel meat because it would make you sick. The same woman went on to say that there was a camel Dreaming involving "three camels who travel to be with that Jesus." A similar Dreaming has been reported in relation to donkeys, with both derived from religious instruction provided by European and Aboriginal pastors and ministers.

At Kintore there is increasing interest in harvesting feral camels. Camel meat has been introduced to the community by the outstations coordinator and is seen as a good food. Most of the people spoken to in the community thought that using camels in this way was good. Some people did not like the idea of catching and eating camels but they were the minority. Their reasons were that they were worried for "the God way". They felt that it was against religious teachings to take the camels. The connection was made between feral camels and the Christian story of the three wise men travelling through the desert. Those who wanted to set up camel harvesting ventures needed information and assistance to develop an application for the necessary equipment. "We want Toyota and horses to round them up. Need a yard and some fences. We got no horse around here, need saddles and bridles. The [outstations coordinator] has been teaching some young fellas about catching camels. Maybe we could sell the meat to other communities." One old man said "too much camel in this country. That camel he's not worrying for water, he's like a mulga that one. He eats this one [pointing to a succulent plant]. Rain time he's drinking at the salt pans. After water finished they eat this one again. This country no good for cattle, maybe it's better to work a bit with those camels." The reasons people gave for wanting to work with camels were: it would be something constructive for the young men to do it would reduce camel damage to outstations, such as breaking fences and taps and it would provide a good supply of fresh meat

At Papunya people said feral animals in the region were originally brought in by the government as food for people on the mission settlement. "Government brought out cattle and horses for killer meat. Before the war we would go out and get a killer from Glen Helen." At Papunya the cattle which come around the outstation communities are owned by an Aboriginal man from the adjacent Haasts Bluff area. "Haasts Bluff own most of the animals and we take some for killers and for young fellers to use." The feral animals are seen to belong to the country. "Belonging" to the country seems to be a value that is gained by being on the country for a period of time and growing up young ones in that country. "Those bullock and horses belong to the country. God made all the animals so they fit in with the other animals."

Despite the animals being seen as belonging to the country there are too many present now. "Too many bullock and horse and donkey and camel. Feral animals getting cheeky, brought long time ago but they breed up." The outstation has a number of problems with the cattle and horses coming in to the yard, eating the young trees and breaking off taps. Despite this they want to "keep those feral animals." At Papunya the presence of cattle on country is not seen as a bad thing, however, some respondents do not want cattle around their own outstation. Cattle are seen to have some effect on the country but all responses indicated that this was not much of an issue.

"Cattle round, don't change the country much, sometimes get a bit of dust." An interesting response is that the presence of animals on country, whether they are feral or native, is seen as a good thing, possibly because they reaffirm the value of the country through its ability to support them. "People love to see animals on country." At Alkipi outstation near Papunya there is some ambivalence about the impact of feral animals. On the one hand they are seen as "belonging" to the country yet there is still seen to be too many of them. "They [ferals] come into the country and settle down here, now they belong. Too many animals now. They're breeding up. Animals [native] gone away, [ferals] frighten them away. Sacred sites need protection from animals, that CCNT mob they should come out here."

At New Bore the origin of feral animals was ascribed to mission time but they were not as well accepted here as elsewhere. The respondent suggested that people would be happier if they had more native animals rather than feral animals on their land. "Mission people bring all these bullock, camel, horse, donkey, long time, now they belong to the country. Bullock sometimes drink the water and kangaroos and emus have nothing to drink. People happier if less horse and camel and more emu and warlu [kangaroo]." At Papunya cats were said to have come to the area long before (and therefore independently of) European people to the centre. They are seen as belonging to the country and some people spoke of cat Dreaming, indicating that cats were covered by Aboriginal Law and therefore a natural part of the environment. "Wild pussy cat from here, some rabbit from here too. Pussy cat got Dreaming, some wild pussycat got Law."

Waramungu

Respondents from Waramungu country gave a different perspective of feral animal problems. Some people suggested that they were concerned or at least aware of the damage that animals such as camels do to the country. This was a natural part of the animal living there. But they did not want control programs being implemented if they could not make the decisions themselves about what needed to be done. "Big mob of camels out in the desert. They chew up the trees, maybe sometime sacred trees, but don't worry about the camels, they all right. That's just what they go to do to eat. We don't want anyone coming along to shoot the animals, we have to make our decisions ourselves." For donkeys however, many people were much less in favour of control programs. Donkeys were seen as friends of people because they had been hard workers in the past. "We want to find out more about camels, where we can sell them and how much we can get. We don't want to hurt those donkeys because they been working with people together for a long time." At Hatches Creek there is a problem with large numbers of donkeys.

A proposal to shoot them was opposed strongly by the community because 'they are God's animals and if they are killed there will be drought." Instead the community was prepared to have them mustered and trucked off to be killed elsewhere. There is strong interest in this proposal.

Gurindji

In Gurindji country feral animals are seen as now belonging to the land. They have worked for people in the past but now they are in a sort of retirement and can stay living quietly on their country. The following discussion took place with a number of older male respondents talking about the country around Dagaragu.

You have lots of kardiya (white people's) animals on your country now?

"Yeah but they belong to this land now, we can't push them out any of them. camel, donkey, kangaroo, emu they belong to this country."

What about those rabbits? "Yeah they belong to this land here now too. They have been here for a long time."

Those rabbits and those camels, they don't have a Dreaming like those Ngumbin (Aboriginal) animals?

"No, nothing. Those animals camel, donkey, they came from another place, from another country. But in that Bible book, they have a story there for camel that's the only story I know for camels."

What do you mob think about killing donkeys or taking donkeys away to the abattoir for meat?

"They have been shoot them all down, because that donkey use all that grass for cattle. Kardiya station manager, they worry about it, they don't like donkey, they used to cart rations before, early days, but this time that donkey been work before when I was a little boy, carting all the loads from Timber creek. I am talking different ways, you can't shoot all those different animals. I'm not allowed to shoot animals. Don't you believe in Jesus Christ."

Some people think that way, but other people think its okay to kill them. "Well when I think about donkey, I think to keep him, break him in for riding, that's all."

What about camels around here, what do you think about that one?

"That's just like a horse, they did work on the station." Have you ever had any camel for meat? "Well yeah in early days, that meat is okay." Those tourists in Alice Springs and some people at Kintore they eat that meat. "Well they eat everything, even frogs from the ground."

Have you thought about eating some of the camels around here?

"We haven't done that yet, we've been only use that camel for carting loads, working, that's all, and camel and donkey working is finished. The whitefella been use him truck now. All that camel been sent away to Western Australia and those donkey been shot here, they been eating too much grass for cattle, they been plenty shooting them all around here on the stations."

If you had too many donkeys around here would you shoot them?

"Well no we wouldn't kill them. Maybe we would kill them but not here. We want them to be taken away."

What about those horses, now you have got lots of them around here. Some people say that they might get them all together and sell them?

"Yeah that's good, we can put horse and donkey in a big truck and they can take them to the abattoir. Well that horse they alright nobody using it, those cheeky ones if they buck you bad horse they use to kill them."

Respondents clearly oppose shooting feral animals on their country. For most respondents, however, using feral animals for meat through mustering and trucking to an abattoir is an acceptable practice. This sort of activity is clearly not an Aboriginal priority as the reason why these animals should be controlled is not clear to Aboriginal people. They live on the land now and have earned the right to live there through their long association with people working the land.

Warlpiri

At Tanami Downs the harvesting of camels was not supported. Camels might be harvested in other regions but at Tanami Downs they were not seen to cause any damage to country and their presence was sanctioned despite the recognition that there were a lot of them around. Commercial use of camels is not opposed but there is the impression that camels can bring large sums of money and the amount available from the abattoirs for the meat is not seen as enough to warrant the effort.

What animals are there on this land, do you have any horses, donkeys, camels?

"We got some horses here, a few around every bore, but we got lots of camels, big mobs, we got a big water out there, two miles down, every animal come to drink down there." Some people have been trapping some camels and selling them to the abattoir in Alice Springs. That mob down at Docker River they brought some up to sell them a few weeks ago, and some people like that Kintore mob they are eating camel meat sometimes. "Well we don't want it, that meat it's no good, I was at Docker River when they been kill one camel and they ask me 'do you want some meat', and I asked them 'what sort of meat' and they said 'camel' and I said 'take him back I don't want that camel meat.' Its no good to eat, no good to taste." What about for the money? If you can sell camels, to the abattoir you can get a little bit of money for them? "Well there are places were they can sell them one camel for 1,000 dollars – quiet one." Well that has happened but I think that now there are too many people with quiet ones to sell and not enough people who want to buy at that price. The Land Council and the Camel Industry Steering Committee is looking around to improve markets and find out more about where people can sell camels but at the moment, right now, that abattoir is taking them. "In this area here now, you look at it. Rubbish country, thousands and thousands of camels walking around here."

Do they damage the country?

"No, they walk around, nothing. Some fellas see cheeky ones, they might be have a fight or bite him, blackfella you know."

What about for country, do they damage waterholes or anything?

"They drink at them, they drink but they don't damage them, mainly they use rockholes." What about sacred site, or sacred things you got on the country, do they damage those? "No, he not damaging the sacred sites, they good. Camels, they just walk around. They don't look around for sacred site. They don't look around for any site. They just look around for new grass coming up that's all."

So what do you think about camels being used for the abattoir, for meat?

"Well they can do it long other side Kintore, Kaltukatjara, but we don't want it here. We got a big mob camel around here but we can't kill him. How much do they get at the abattoir?" Well they got about $250 each. "They should sell them overseas, more money there." Well they are looking all the time to find out if they can sell them overseas but there is not much market there. "Well there's a lot of animals overseas. They have got everything. I've been to France and America, they've got everything, snake, frog, they've got a lot of animals, dingo and all they eat him, little bird, in France."

At Nyirrpi community feral animals were seen as newcomers and their control and or use was seen as a good thing. "Would be good to catch those wild camels, none of those feral animals were here in the olden time." Similar opinions were expressed at Yuendumu where feral animals were seen as coming from another place. Controlling feral animals was seen as a good thing provided they were taken away rather than killed on the country. Despite this view feral animals were also seen as belonging to the country. Respondents also said that feral animals don't change the country, they sort of belong, they are part of the picture. People indicated that animals belong once they have lived in the environment for an extended period and have bred and had young in the country. "Those animals [ferals] come from other place. Good to take brumby away, not just kill him but take him away. Camel, we can go out and get him and sell him to European, camel tracks all over." There is no resistance to the ideas that feral horses and camels can be taken off the country especially if there is a profit in doing so. People are against killing because of the waste, and because they feel that the animals have a right to be here as they now belong to the country. Summary Feral animals which are often regarded as pests by non-Aboriginal people are viewed differently by Aboriginal people. Through long association with these species they are seen to belong on the country and in some cases they have taken on important roles in Aboriginal life.

Where feral animals are in large numbers and damage the country Aboriginal people recognise the impact but generally do not connect such issues with a need to carry out special forms of management. In general Aboriginal people do not understand the rationale for feral animal control programs. The effects of feral animals on the country are not seen as a cause for concern. It is seen as a natural phenomenon that animals eat the grass and raise a bit of dust. To separate the impact of feral animals from native species on these grounds is not seen as logical. People see the contemporary ecosystem as an integrated whole so they don't see some species as belonging while others do not. In many areas feral animals are looked on as a resource of the country. Their presence confirms that the land is productive and people derive pleasure from seeing them in the wild. Aboriginal people are generally happy to support programs for harvesting feral animals and to receive the benefits that these programs provide.

Control programs which are aimed at reducing numbers or eradicating local populations without making use of the animals are not generally supported. Shooting animals to waste was seen as the least desirable method for control.

Recommendations

It is recommended that: Continued assistance be provided to Aboriginal landowners to develop feral animal capture and utilisation programs concentrating on: marketing information and assistance, technical and financial management information and assistance, accessing funds to establish locally based capture programs, regional networks which integrate and coordinate individual capture programs, the identification and development of avenues for value adding for animal products. The Land Councils and representative Aboriginal organisations should support Aboriginal representation in industry bodies involved with the utilisation of feral animals and animal products. Further research be carried out on the local and regional benefits of feral animals utilisation with special reference to: the economic implications of income substitution processes and local trading in feral animals and feral animal products.